How Do You Learn A Language

Learning a language is a complex, time-intensive task that requires dedication, persistence, and difficult piece of work. If y'all're reading this, then y'all probably already know that.

What you might not know is that there are strategies that can help you lot written report more finer, and so that yous make the most of your time and energy. This handout start explains some of the key principles that guide effective linguistic communication learning, and then describes activities that tin can help y'all put these principles into practise. Use these tools to create a strategic study plan that helps your linguistic communication skills grow.

Key principles of language learning

The Basics:

Showtime, let's talk about the basics. Research in this area (chosen "second linguistic communication acquisition" in academia) suggests that there are iii primal elements to learning a new language.

• The first is comprehensible input, which is a fancy way of saying being exposed to (hearing or reading) something in the new language and learning to empathize it.
• Comprehensible output is the 2nd chemical element, and unsurprisingly it means learning to produce (speak or write) something in the new language.
• The third chemical element is review or feedback, which basically means identifying errors and making changes in response.[ane]

Fancy terms aside, these are really pretty straightforward ideas.

These iii elements are the edifice blocks of your language practice, and an constructive study plan will maximize all three. The more than you listen and read (input), the more than you speak and write (output), the more you get back over what you've done and learn from your errors (review & feedback), the more your linguistic communication skills will grow.

DO: Create a report plan that maximizes the three dimensions of language learning: understanding (input), producing (output), and identifying and correcting errors (review/feedback).

Seek remainder

Learning a new language involves listening, speaking, reading, writing, sometimes fifty-fifty a new alphabet and writing format. If yous focus exclusively on just 1 activity, the others fall behind.

This is actually a common pitfall for linguistic communication learners. For instance, it'south easy to focus on reading comprehension when studying, in part considering written language is often readily accessible—for one affair, you have a whole textbook full of information technology. This is too true of the three fundamental elements: it'southward comparatively easy to find input sources (like your textbook) and practise understanding them. But neglecting the other two key principles (output and feedback/review) tin can irksome downwards language growth.

Instead, what you need is a balanced study plan: a mix of study activities that target both spoken and written language, and gives attention to all 3 central principles.

Exercise: Focus on balance: practice both spoken and written language, and make sure to include all of the iii key principles—input, output, and feedback/review.

Errors are important

Sometimes, the biggest challenge to language learning is overcoming our own fears: fear of making a mistake, of maxim the wrong thing, of embarrassing yourself, of not being able to find the right word, and and then on. This is all perfectly rational: anyone learning a language is going to make mistakes, and sometimes those mistakes will exist very public.

The thing is, you Demand to brand those mistakes. One of the key principles of language learning is all about making errors so learning from them: this is what review & feedback ways. Plus, if you're not willing to make errors, then the amount of language you produce (your output) goes manner downward. In other words, being agape of making a mistake negatively affects two of the iii key principles of linguistic communication learning!

So what do yous do? In office, you may need to push yourself to get comfortable with making errors. However, you should also expect for ways to get low-stakes practice: create situations in which you feel more comfortable trying out your new language and making those inevitable mistakes.

For instance, consider finding a written report partner who is at your level of linguistic communication skill. This is ofttimes more than comfortable than practicing with an advanced student or a native speaker, and they're usually easier to find—yous've got a whole form full of potential partners!

DO: Learn to appreciate mistakes, and push yourself to become more than comfortable with making errors.

Do: Create opportunities for 'depression-stakes' practice, where you lot'll feel comfy practicing and making mistakes.

Spread it out

Studying a new language involves learning a LOT of textile, then yous'll want to use your study fourth dimension as finer equally possible. According to enquiry in educational and cognitive psychology, one of the nearly effective learning strategies is distributed practice. This concept has two primary components: spacing, which is breaking study time up into multiple small sessions, and separation, which means spreading those sessions out over time.[2]

For example, allow's imagine you have a list of vocabulary words to acquire. Today is Sunday, and the vocab quiz is on Friday. If you can only spend a full of 30 minutes studying this vocab, which study plan will be the near effective?

(A) Study for 30 minutes on Th.
(B) Study for x minutes at a time on Tuesday, Wednesday, and Thursday.
(C) Study for ten minutes at a time on Sunday, Tuesday, and Thursday.
(D) Study for xxx minutes on Sunday.

If yous look at the total time spent studying, all four options are exactly the same. Just enquiry suggests that choice C is the most effective mode to manage your time: instead of studying the vocabulary all at in one case, you've spread out the time into several shorter sessions, and you've besides increased the amount of time between written report sessions. (And yes, this is also why "cramming" isn't a good study program!)

DO: Intermission upwards your study time into shorter chunks and spread those sessions out over time.

Crash-land up your retentivity

Memory is a disquisitional part of any kind of studying, and constructive memorization is strongly correlated with success in foreign linguistic communication classes.[3] Only if you lot're not "good at" memorizing things, don't despair! Although people often recall of memory every bit a fixed quality, it's really a skill that you tin improve through deliberate practice.

There's a considerable amount of research on how memory works, as well equally a wide range of strategies for improving memory. For example, scientific experiments show that our brusque-term memory tin only hold about 7 pieces of new information at once. So if you lot're working on a long listing of new vocabulary words, offset by breaking information technology upwardly into smaller chunks, and report 1 shorter section at a time. Additionally, research too suggests that retrieve-based report methods are nearly effective. This means that actively trying to recall data is more effective than only reviewing information; essentially, self-testing volition help you more re-reading your notes will.[4]

The best way to starting time working on your retention is to build on the techniques that you already know work for you. For case, if associating a word with a moving picture is effective for you, and so y'all should incorporate images into your vocabulary exercise. Withal, if you're not certain where to start, here'southward a "beginner" formula for memorizing a new discussion: utilise the word at least five times the first day that y'all acquire it, then multiple times over the week, at least once every twenty-four hours.

If y'all're interested in more than tips for improving your memory, check out our resources on memorization strategies.

In improver to figuring out which memorization techniques work best for you, it'south likewise of import to actively protect your memory. For example, experiencing a strong emotion has been shown to sharply decrease the ability to memorize unrelated content. (Then if yous've just watched a horror movie, it's probably not a nifty fourth dimension for vocabulary review!)

To get the most out of your study time, here'southward a listing of common "memory killers" to avert:

Stress and feet: Just like other strong emotions, stress and feet drastically reduce your power to make new memories and recall information.

Information overload: Studying for hours at a time might seem like a great idea, but it'due south actually a actually ineffective utilise of time. In fact, taking a short break every xxx minutes helps ameliorate focus, and later on 2 hours you should consider switching topics.

Fatigue: The more tired you are, the less effective your memory is. Chronic slumber deprivation is peculiarly detrimental, so those late-dark study sessions might actually do more impairment than proficient!

Multitasking: As you may accept noticed, all of these "memory killers" are also things that disrupt focus. Multi-tasking is probably the most common source of lark. In fact, here'southward a groovy rule of thumb for protecting your memory: if you lot're not supposed to exercise it while driving, then you shouldn't do it while studying. (Yes, that ways drinking, texting, and watching Netflix "in the groundwork" are all NOs.)

DO: Increase memorization by breaking information into small chunks and studying the chunks one at a time, and by using call back-based strategies like self-testing.

Practice: Focus on protecting and improving your memorization skills, and build the retention techniques that work best for you into your report plan.

Vocab is rex

Want to know a secret? Vocabulary is more of import than grammar.
DISCLAIMER: This does NOT mean that grammer is unimportant. Without grammar, you won't know how to use your vocabulary, since grammer tells you how to combine words into sentences. And apparently, if you lot're in a strange language class, yous're going to need to study ALL the material to do well, and that will definitely include grammer.
The more vocabulary yous know, the more than apace you can grow your language skills. The reason is simple: understanding more words directly translates into more input, producing more words means more output, and more output means more opportunity for feedback. Additionally, when y'all're interacting with native speakers, vocabulary is more than beneficial to advice than grammer is. Being able to produce words will help get your significant across, even if what you say is not perfectly grammatical.[v]

Of grade, in order to go fully fluent in your new language, eventually you will demand strong grammar skills. But once once again, this is something that having a strong, well-adult vocabulary will help with. Since grammer dictates relationships betwixt words and phrases, understanding those smaller components (aka vocabulary) volition help meliorate your understanding of how those grammatical relationships work.

Do: Design a study plan that emphasizes vocabulary.

Activities

At present that we've talked nigh the general principles that you should incorporate in your language study, allow's focus on activities: applied suggestions to help y'all find new ways to grow your language skills!

Find real-life sources

Since one of the primary iii components of language learning is input, await for ways to expose yourself to as much of the linguistic communication you're learning every bit possible. Just this doesn't mean reading more textbooks (unless your textbook is a fascinating read that you're excited about). Instead, look for "authentic" examples of the linguistic communication, things you'll actually savour and look forrad to practicing with, even if you don't sympathise every word!

Hither are some examples to go yous started:

Newspaper manufactures, magazines, & blogs: Many of these are freely available online, and once you've tried reading them a few times, it's easy to interpret the key parts to bank check your agreement. Expect for a topic you're already interested in and follow it with a news reader app!

Books: Children's moving picture books and books yous've read before in your native language are easy options for intermediate/avant-garde beginners. The library often has nifty options available for complimentary!

Tv shows and movies: Try watching them without subtitles the beginning time, starting in ~15 minute segments. Another nifty option is to sentinel beginning without whatsoever subtitles, and so with subtitles in the language you're learning, so finally with subtitles in your native language if you need them. Lather operas are likewise great options (especially if y'all like lots of drama!), since the plot lines are often explained multiple times.

Songs: Music, especially popular songs, tin can be especially well suited to language practice, since you're likely to memorize the ones you enjoy. Ask a teacher or native speaker for recommendations if you're struggling to find proficient examples. Children'south songs tin also be fun practice tools.

Podcasts and sound books: There are a lot of options for all sorts of languages, and as a bonus yous'll ofttimes get exposure to local news and cultural topics. To get you started, nosotros recommend this site, which has a bang-up list of podcasts for many dissimilar languages.

Likewise, consider tweaking some of your media settings to "bump up" your coincidental linguistic communication exposure. For instance, changing your Facebook and LinkedIn location and linguistic communication preferences will force you to interact with the linguistic communication you're learning, fifty-fifty when you're (more often than not) wasting time.

Pro tips

Improve the effectiveness of this activity past using the following suggestions!

Slow it down: If you lot're listening to a podcast or audio volume, try slowing downward the speed just a bit: 0.75x is a common option, and the slowed-down sound still doesn't sound too strange. Also, make certain to take breaks frequently to help you procedure what yous've merely heard.

Combine your senses: In many cases, yous can combine types of input to help create a more learning environment: reading and listening to a text at the same fourth dimension can help y'all amend your comprehension. For example, for TV shows and movies, turn on subtitles in the same language. Other options include:

• Radio news stories often have both audio and transcripts available online, especially for pieces that are a few days one-time.
• Amazon's Kindle offers an "immersive reading" option that syncs audio books with text.
• TED talks come in many different languages, and often include an interactive transcript.
• If yous're an ESL student, the ESL $.25 website has some great resource that link reading and listening, and it likewise has adaptable audio speeds!

Get hooked: To make this strategy as effective as possible, find a source that you actually savour, and commit to experiencing it only in the language y'all're learning. Having a become-to plan that you lot dearest will assist keep you motivated. For case, if y'all beloved podcast/radio story programs like "Radiolab" and are learning Spanish, bank check out "Radio Ambulante."

Hold shadow conversations

A primal office of learning a new language involves preparation your ear. Different written language, spoken language doesn't accept the aforementioned context clues that aid y'all decipher and split out words. Plus, in addition to using slang and idioms, native speakers tend to "smoosh" words together, which is even more than confusing for linguistic communication learners![6] In part, this is why listening to real-life sources tin can exist and so helpful (see the previous activity).

Withal, fifty-fifty beginning linguistic communication learners can benefit from something called conversational shadowing. Basically, this means repeating a conversation word-for-word, even when you don't know what all of the words mean. This helps y'all get used to the rhythm and patterns of the language, as well as learn to identify individual words and phrases from longer chunks of spoken language. Another great strategy involves holding practise conversations, where yous create imaginary conversations and rehearse them multiple times.

Both of these strategies are great ways to help you acquire and retain new vocabulary, and they besides increase your linguistic communication output in a low-stakes practice setting!

Example: If y'all've got a homework exercise that involves reviewing an audio or video prune, take a few extra steps to go the near benefit:

• Later yous've listened to the clip in one case, shadow the conversation in short sections (think ~20-30 seconds). Focus on reproducing the words equally accurately equally possible, paying close attention to rhythm, intonation, and pacing.
• In one case you can accurately shadow the entire clip, then focus on understanding the meaning of the fabric, and answer any homework questions related to the clip.
• At present, utilise the same vocabulary to create a new chat: recollect of what you lot would want to say in a real-life situation similar this one, and practice it until you tin can respond confidently to any side of the exchange.

Go a collector

Since expanding your vocabulary is so important, identifying new words is a big priority. This is specially true when you're in an immersion surroundings (studying away, etc), just it'south likewise something that y'all can do on a regular basis even when y'all're at dwelling.

Basically, you need to collect words: whatever time y'all come across a new word, yous desire to capture information technology by recording information technology in some style. The easiest fashion to do this is in a small pocket notebook, but you could also put a annotation in your telephone, send a text or email to yourself, or even record yourself saying it. The key point is to capture the word as quickly and easily equally possible. Too, don't worry too much nigh spelling or definitions in the moment: you'll bargain with those later.

Whatever your recording system is (notebook, phone, vocalisation memo, etc), it's only the first part of the collection process. Adjacent, you'll need to review each of the words you've recorded. This is something y'all'll practice on a regular basis, and then that you can actually employ the words you've recorded. Depending on how many new words yous're collecting, it might be every day, every few days, or in one case a week. This is the time when yous find the correct spelling, write down the definition, perchance find an instance, and so on.

To brand this process as constructive as possible, you lot too desire to have some sort of system that helps you record and organize your give-and-take drove. If you similar newspaper-based methods, then flashcards can be hands organized in index bill of fare boxes, though you might desire to include some alphabetical divider tabs to help yourself stay organized. However, digital tools are especially helpful with this kind of information, and there are tons of apps that tin can help y'all organize a large vocabulary drove. But yous don't demand a fancy app or program: a elementary spreadsheet too works great for virtually cases.

Finally, you likewise want to make sure to apply your discussion collection! Non but do you need to learn new words once you lot add them, you'll also need regular review of old words to maintain your vocabulary. This is another identify where digital tools smoothen, since it's easy to admission the unabridged collection at any time, making information technology easier to report and review on a regular basis. In any case, make sure that yous contain review along with learning new words.

The iv basic steps of word collection

1. Capture new words. Listen for them in class, seek them out in conversations, detect them in your "authentic sources," etc. Record them in the moment, without worrying too much about spelling and definitions.
2. Review your new words. Found a routine so that yous regularly "empty out" your recording tool and add the new words to your drove.
3. Record and organize your drove. Create an organized system for your collection; common tools include digital flashcard apps, spreadsheets, and traditional index cards.
4. Employ your words! Make sure you're learning new additions and besides periodically reviewing older words.

Pro tips

• If you're struggling to discover new words to collect—or if yous experience overwhelmed by the number of words you could collect—so try working "backwards." Instead of looking for new words in the language you're learning, call up about the gaps in your vocabulary. For example, think nigh the topics you ofttimes talk over in your native language. Exercise y'all know how to talk well-nigh those things in the language you lot're learning? Hobbies and other classes are ofttimes bully places to start.
• If you're in a foreign language class, you tin can utilise the same give-and-take collection arrangement to help y'all acquire and review assigned vocabulary. Consider color-coding or tagging words that are class-related if you desire to give those words actress attention. If you're using a digital flashcard app, you might consider creating different card "sets" to help you organize them.

Flashcard zen

Flashcards are one of the almost common tools that language learners employ. There is a practiced reason for this: they're easily portable, they're fantabulous for learning short pieces of information (similar new words), and used correctly they're a great recall-based study strategy. However, flashcards are non without problems. For example, it's far too easy to devote excessive time to making elaborately detailed flashcards, and then spend insufficiently little time actually using them! The following tips describe ways to use flashcards in a strategic and effective manner.

Less is more than

The more than time you spend making flashcards, the less time y'all spend using them…but if y'all don't brand flashcards, then yous don't have any to utilize. The point behind this paradox is that you want to minimize the time and effort you put into the flashcard gear up-up process. This is a state of affairs where perfectionism can really harm you: if you focus on making admittedly "perfect" flashcards, then you're really just wasting time.

Similarly, you also want to minimize the volume of data you put on each flashcard. Flashcards should non be pages of notes in a smaller format, especially when using them for vocabulary. Instead, each carte du jour should have just enough data on it to test your memory. Instead of containing many details, a expert flashcard will serve as a "cue" that triggers your memory. This way, you lot're forcing your brain to work to produce the data, which helps build and maintain strong memories.

Mix information technology up

Another common flashcard issue is that they promote rote memorization, then that information is divorced from context. But in real life, you'll be using your vocabulary in a wide range of contexts. Only practicing vocabulary in rote drills may end upward slowing you downwardly when you need to actually use the words.[7]

One instance of this is the "translation" phenomenon: instead of learning to associate new words with their meanings, they become associated with the word in your native linguistic communication. If y'all're always translating word-for-discussion in your head, then it takes much longer to empathize and interact. A cracking way to reduce this issue is to change the blazon of cues used on your flashcard: instead of written words, you lot might represent the meaning of new words with a picture—or for digital flashcards, yous could even utilise audio files.

Example: Imagine a beginning student (and native English speaker) learns that the Arabic word for door is "bab" (باب). She could brand several different flashcards for this word:

• Traditional flashcard: the written word in Arabic on one side, and in English on the other
• Audio flashcard (digital): the spoken Arabic give-and-take on one side, and the spoken give-and-take in English on the other
• Pictoral flashcard: a film of a door on 1 side, and the word written in Standard arabic on the other

You tin can besides combine these types to make different hybrid-style flashcards. Once again, don't try to make elaborate, perfect flashcards—just something that will push you to associate words with meanings, instead of but their translations. Not all of your flashcards take to utilise non-written cues, but it's a great mode to add variety and prevent "translation" memory.

Additionally, make sure to practice using both sides of the flashcards as cues. In other words, if you've already gone through a ready of cards starting with the English language side, flip the stack over the adjacent time y'all employ it, so that you're getting prompted by the language you're learning.

You lot can too avoid the pitfalls of rote memorization past making sure to practice using the words in context. For case, in addition to testing yourself with each card, follow that up by using the give-and-take in a sentence. This is peculiarly good for words you've already learned and are now reviewing. You can also turn this into a game, where you brand upwardly "mad-lib" style sentences by randomly cartoon cards and combining them. If you're working with a partner or written report group, you can also utilise flashcards to play games like charades or Pictionary.

Make information technology a habit

Ultimately, flashcards are just a tool, albeit i that is ideally suited to vocabulary practice. And as with any kind of practice, the more time you put in, better your results will exist: flashcards work all-time when used frequently and consistently. If yous want to get the about out of your flashcards, turn using them into a regular habit. Here are some tips to keep in heed:

Small sets, many reps: To improve memorization when practicing new words, create sets of 7 flashcards or less and exercise each set up several times before moving on to the next ane. Also, brand sure to infinite out your flashcard sessions, and once you lot've reviewed a set of words, put information technology aside for a 24-hour interval or two earlier reviewing it over again.

Increase portability: Make sure you take full advantage of the portable nature of flashcards. If yous're using paper, then consider using a binder ring and hole punch to continue small sets together. You might also use smaller cards: since you'll be making simple cards (minimalism!), you could probably cutting a regular 3"x5" index bill of fare into halves (or even quarters) and nevertheless have more plenty room! Fifty-fifty if you utilise total-sized paper cards, you increase portability by being selective in the number you lot take with you. Remember, you desire to infinite out your sets and reps, so it isn't necessary to carry all your cards with y'all all the time. If yous're using digital tools, look for apps that tin sync to all your devices—phone, tablet, computer, web, etc.

Wasted' time: Since flashcards are and then portable, they're a keen way to plow "wasted" time into useful fourth dimension. How much time practise you spend riding the bus? How about stuck in line at the grocery shop, or waiting for an appointment at Campus Health? Instead of checking your Twitter feed or hopping on Facebook, open up your flashcard app (or pull out your flashcard stack) and do a quick vocab review. If you're doing small sets information technology won't take very long to go through one, and you've merely bumped up your number of reps for the day!

Create a routine: Habits are powerful. Once you've established a beliefs pattern, you find yourself doing it without thinking about it. So think about how you can create a daily routine for using your flashcards. Finding and using "wasted" time is a good start, especially if you have a daily bus commute. What nigh taking 5 minutes every morning time to do vocabulary review while yous drinkable your java? Or making it your first "afterwards-dinner to do" once you've finished eating? Once yous find ways to brand vocabulary flashcards part of your daily routine, you can utilise the power of addiction to aid grow your vocabulary.

Periodic review: Once yous've learned new words, y'all're not washed with those flashcards—instead, utilise them to go on your vocabulary strong. Each week, randomly select a few words to review. You might do a review gear up once each day, or the review words tin be mixed in with your current learning sets (this is a great way to keep your word collection going strong!).

Make information technology fun

Learning a new language is a lot of work, simply that's non what motivated yous to start studying it in the first identify, right? Instead, you lot probably desire to travel or work abroad, or exist able to talk with people from other countries, maybe even study literature or history… Whatever got y'all interested in this language in the get-go place, it's probably a lot more fun than all this studying is.

Here'due south the thing: whenever you lot tin do something that connects you back with the reasons that motivate you to report your new language, or you find something new and exciting about the linguistic communication y'all're studying or the cultures that use it, apply your excitement to heave your motivation. It'south what volition keep you lot going—and that kind of persistence is a central cistron in language learning success.[eight]

But in add-on to staying focused on what yous savour, yous tin can besides deliberately create fun social activities that also aid you grow your language skills. For instance, endeavour hosting a dinner and pic "theme" night with friends who are studying the aforementioned language. Create a "mini-immersion" environment: watch movies in the linguistic communication you lot're learning, cook some accurate cuisine, and try to speak merely in your new (shared!) language. It'southward a great fashion to get some authentic, low-stakes do. (Plus, it's a great excuse for a party!)

Parting communication

In improver to this handout, there are lots of resource to help yous with your language learning goals.

• If you're in a language class, your professor, TA, and/or other instructors often have keen advice for written report strategies—in improver to their pedagogy experience, at one signal they were learning a new language, merely like you lot are!
• Cheque out what the linguistic communication section offers: perchance there is a peer tutoring program, or conversation tables (aka "language coffee hours"), or cultural events that tin can be great authentic sources for practice (and fun motivation boosters). Linguistic communication departments often have online resources likewise, and so be sure to check out their websites.
• Look for other campus organizations that offer language learning resources, such as global studies and student groups.

UNC linguistic communication departments, programs, and curricula

• Department of Asian Studies
• Department of African, African American, and Diaspora Studies
• Section of Romance Studies
• Department of High german and Slavic Languages and Literatures
• Program in American Indian and Ethnic Studies
• Curriculum in Global studies

Works consulted

Murphey, T. (1998). Linguistic communication hungry!: An introduction to language learning fun and self-esteem. Japan: MacMillan Language business firm.

Dunlosky, J., Rawson, Chiliad. A., Marsh, E. J., Nathan, M. J., & Willingham, D. T. (2013). Improving students' learning with effective learning techniques promising directions from cognitive and educational psychology. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, xiv(1), 4-58.

Brown, H. D., & Gonzo, Due south. T. (1995). Readings on second language acquisition. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall Regents.

O'Malley, J. M., Chamot, A. U., & Küpper, L. (1995). Listening comprehension strategies in 2d linguistic communication acquisition. Readings on 2nd linguistic communication acquisition, 138-160.

Oxford, R., & Crookall, D. (1989). Research on language learning strategies: Methods, findings, and instructional issues. The Modern Language Periodical,73(iv), 404-419.

Nunan, David. Second Language Teaching & Learning. Heinle & Heinle Publishers, 7625 Empire Dr., Florence, KY 41042-2978, 1999.

Son, Fifty. G., & Simon, D. A. (2012). Distributed learning: Data, metacognition, and educational implications. Educational Psychology Review, 24(iii), 379-399.

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[1] Brown & Gonzo, 1995; Ellis, 1997; Nunan, 1999

[2] Dunlosky et al, 2013; Son & Simon, 2012

[3] Oxford, R., & Crookall, D. (1989). Enquiry on language learning strategies: Methods, findings, and instructional issues. The Modern Linguistic communication Periodical,73(4), 404-419.

[four] Dunlosky et al, 2013

[5] Murphey, T. (1998). Linguistic communication hungry!: An introduction to language learning fun and self-esteem. Nippon: MacMillan Languagehouse.

[6] Nunn, 1999; Murphey, 1998

[vii] Nunan, 1999; Oxford & Crookall, 1989

[8] Nunan, 1999; Oxford & Crookall, 1989, Brown & Gonzo, 1995.

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This work is licensed under a Artistic Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivs iv.0 License.
You lot may reproduce information technology for non-commercial use if y'all use the entire handout and attribute the source: The Learning Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill

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Source: https://learningcenter.unc.edu/tips-and-tools/learning-a-second-language/

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